London Labour and the London Poor

This section, written by Mayhew, seeks to classify different categories of people, whom he splits into four groups: “those who will work,” “those who cannot work,” “those that will not work,” and “those that need not work.” Mayhew begins with a brief preface acknowledging the misery, vice, ignorance, and want in society. He states his purpose is to shed light on the phenomena surrounding the “outcast” class and to challenge misconceptions. He emphasizes the importance of seeking the truth, stating that facts alone are insufficient without proper generalization and contextualization. In addition, he discusses deductive and inductive reasoning and states his intent to use the inductive approach to understand crime and vice.

Mayhew discusses the roles of workers and nonworkers in society. For example, he highlights the differences between animals and plants in seeking sustenance. Animals must constantly seek sustenance, leading to the need for food intake. He describes the categories of workers: those who can work, those who cannot work due to physical or intellectual limitations, and those who choose not to work. The categorization aims to provide an overview of different societal roles and how individuals contribute to various aspects of community life. Mayhew defines the following worker categories:

• Enrichers (who collect, extract, or produce)
• Auxiliaries (who promote production or distribute)
• Benefactors (who confer permanent benefits)
• Servitors (who provide temporary services or pleasure)

Mayhew further divides the workers into two classes: superior (higher-priced) and inferior (lower-priced). The superior category consists of skilled, trustworthy, and well-conditioned workers. The inferior category includes the unskilled, untrustworthy (such as drunken or dishonest workers), and those who can live on less (single individuals and foreigners).

He categorizes nonworkers as follows:

• Those whom public institutions provide for (people in institutions)
• Those who are incapacitated because of a lack of ability or means (and whom public institutions do not provide for)
• Those who will not work (vagrants, beggars, thieves, and sex workers)
• Those who need not work (people who have income from rent, dividends, or stipends)

The text then elaborates on subcategories of workers in each category, such as collectors, extractors, growers, makers, and workers in various fields, specifying payment methods and working conditions. The classification extends to those who receive assistance, those employed by different employers, and various working modes.

In addition, Mayhew points out the flaws in the government’s Occupation Abstract of the Census, wherein they fail to adequately address distinctions between commerce, trade, and manufacturing, and between employers and workers. He also delves into the distinctions among nonworkers in society, focusing on those who are unwilling to work but still need to sustain themselves. The author discusses the criminal class and its various categories, including those who plunder by force, deception, gaming, or immoral acts. The passage also differentiates between professional criminals who make a regular living from crime and casual offenders driven by temporary circumstances.

These sections, which occupy a sizeable portion of the volume, covers the topic of sex workers. Section 3, coauthored by Mayhew and Bracebridge Hemyng, covers sex work broadly, discussing sexual morality across cultures and time. Section 4, authored by Hemyng, focuses explicitly on the sex workers of contemporary London.

In Section 3, Mayhew and Hemyng delve into the concept of sex work as a livelihood in the absence of conventional work, examining the multifaceted nature of the profession and debating whether it is a matter of individual preference or a moral principle. They begin by discussing historical examples from civilizations such as Babylon, Egypt, Greece, Rome, and the Hebrews to illustrate their differing stances on moral values and the societal role of women. The primary focus of the discussion lies in comprehending the extent of sex work’s ancient prevalence and its cultural context within societies. They move on to discussing the views on the subject across contemporary cultures, which they split into the categories of “barbarous,” “semi-civilized,” the “northern nations,” and “civilized.” The different categories describe the interplay of societal norms, religious beliefs, and historical influences that shape women’s roles and moral practices in these locations. The prevalence of polygamy, concubinage, and mistreatment of women emerges as a recurring theme in the societies they describe as less civilized.

In Section 4, Hemyng’s portion on sex workers in London, he begins by describing the different categories and their lifestyles. These categories are “kept mistresses” supported by high-status gentlemen; educated girls; domestic servants and lower-class women; and old, impoverished women. The first group consists of ladies supported by wealthy men; they are often kept in separate residences and lead luxurious lives, participating in social events and traveling, and may have been introduced to their patrons through ballrooms or social circles. Despite their affluent lifestyles, these women might be discarded by their patrons for trivial reasons and end up in poverty, workhouses, or hospitals—or even die by suicide.

Hemyng shifts the focus to sex workers living in impoverished London neighborhoods. He illuminates their survival strategies and camaraderie as well as the darker aspects, such as crime and exploitation within the lodging houses of these neighborhoods. He examines the interplay of societal elements, including sailors, sex workers, and the working class, particularly in areas such as Whitechapel. The text exposes the convergence of modern civilization, law enforcement, and the innate challenges those living in these neighborhoods face. The relationships between sailors and women, proliferation of dance halls, and socioeconomic struggles come to the forefront. In addition, Hemyng confronts the reality of human trafficking of women and young girls, highlighting the need for organizations like the Society for the Protection of Women and Children.

This section, authored by John Binny, focuses on the thieves of London. It covers various forms of theft, burglary, and criminal activities in the city. Binny describes their methods as involving distractions, collaboration, and strategic positioning. He also delves into the social dynamics, backgrounds, and training of these criminals, showing how poverty and limited opportunities lead individuals to a life of crime. The criminals he describes range from traditional highwaymen to more modern pickpockets, burglars, and river pirates. Throughout the section, Binny highlights specific locations, such as the Rookery of St. Giles and Spitalfields, as centers of criminal activities. The discussion of forgery encompasses counterfeiting coins, banknotes, cheques, acceptances, and wills, demonstrating the breadth of fraudulent activities during that era. In addition, the passage delves into specific criminal groups, like the “magsmen” or “sharpers,” who use schemes involving card tricks and wagers to deceive victims. Binny portrays embezzlement as a prevalent issue because individuals from various professions exploit their positions for personal gain. Binny uses statistical data to quantify the prevalence and impact of these crimes on different parts of London, along with firsthand accounts of those struggling with poverty, inequality, and crime, and highlights the efforts to reform and address these issues.

The final section, authored by Andrew Halliday, discusses the beggars of London. Halliday begins by outlining how society initially acknowledged (and often supported) the needs of beggars as stemming from age or physical affliction. However, deceit in begging led to the introduction of prohibitive laws against fraudulent beggars. Respect for genuine beggars continued, but their numbers grew after the dissolution of monasteries in the 16th century, creating challenges in distinguishing between people legitimately in need and impostors.

Next, Halliday delves into the evolution of support for the poor in England. The Mendicity Society aims to combat mendicancy, using printed tickets for relief rather than direct monetary support. The Society’s efforts aimed to distinguish deserving cases from impostors and to provide effective relief to those in need. The Poor Law Amendment Act of 1834 sought to address abuses and dependency issues by centralizing relief oversight and instituting workhouses.

Halliday provides examples of the different tactics beggars used to gain sympathy and financial support. Some beggars, known as “Begging-Letter Writers,” adopted respectable appearances and handwriting. Others, like the “Decayed Gentleman,” played on past prosperity and social connections. In addition, Halliday describes beggars who disguise themselves as street vendors to solicit sympathy and donations. He categorizes beggars into various types—such as naval and military beggars, beggars who invent stories based on recent accidents, beggars who manipulate sympathy via crafted narratives and appearances, and foreign beggars—and explores the relationship between sex workers and beggars.